Border Management

 

 

 

AGNI pp 79-106 Studies in International Strategic.

Vol. XXIV, No. I January 2021 - April 2021 SECURITY CHALLENGES AND MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S INTERNATIONAL BORDERS

BY J.K. VERMA

 The effective management of international borders is important for India as it has a coastline of 7,516.6 km and land borders are 15,106.7 km. Further, India has two hostile neighbours, and our western neighbour has been waging a low-intensity war since long. The problems for Delhi are further aggravated as the country’s progress, which outstrips most of its neighbours, leads to the problem of mass infiltration, cross-border terrorism, left-wing radicalism, infiltration of armed terrorists, and smuggling of arms and narcotics. Foreign countries inimical to India assist secessionist movements and are involved in instigating minorities. The government has created a Department of Border Management to manage the complex land and maritime borders. Collection of intelligence has also become vital. A major problem is that the land border is not demarcated at several places and it is divided into the International Border, Line of Control, Line of Actual Control, Working Boundary, The Actual Ground Position Line, McMahon Line – which China does not accept – Disputed Border etc. The Indian coastline has its own set of challenges. Not only is it long but there are 1,382 islands and 1,376 landing points, and several landing points are in deserted areas which are difficult to guard. The government had taken several measures to safeguard the borders and the creation of five theatre commands would be an important step to counter threats from China and Pakistan. As assets of other agencies would also come under the Maritime Theatre Command (MTC), it would be easier for it to safeguard the maritime boundary. However, such a single-point arrangement does not exist for the land borders. Appropriate border guidelines are required, and the principle of single-point control should be implemented for effective management. The present era is of synergy and technology; hence, what is required is a synergy of resources and using the latest technology to secure the diverse borders of the country.

 

 The effective management of international borders is an important task and for that reason, most countries make enormous investments in safeguarding them, which includes both land and maritime borders. India has a coastline of 7,516.6 km and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2,305,143 sq. km, which is the 18th largest EEZ in the world. India’s EEZ includes the Lakshadweep Islands, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, borders to the west with Pakistan, to the south by the Maldives and Sri Lanka, while Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia are located on the east. India, based on new scientific data, has appealed to the United Nations to increase its EEZ from 370 km to 648 km. India’s land borders are 15,106.7 km and it is shared with seven countries including Bangladesh (4,096.7 km), Bhutan (699 km), China (3,488 km), Myanmar (1,643 km), Nepal (1,751 km), Pakistan (3,323 km) and a small portion (106 km) with Afghanistan in northern Ladakh, which is illegally occupied by Pakistan. The multifarious departments including administrative, defence forces, central police organisations, police, intelligence, external affairs and legal, have to work with cohesion to manage such a long and diverse border, which runs through numerous States.

Efficient management of borders is extremely essential for the safety and security of a nation. The importance of safeguarding the borders becomes more important for India as Pakistan has waged a low-intensity hybrid war against India for long and is involved in cross-border terrorism. The Inter Services Intelligence (ISI) of Pakistan is also involved in a disinformation campaign in the border areas. The management of borders has become overly complex because of several factors including technological advancement, media insurrection and globalisation, hence, India needs thorough planning to manage its international borders. India also has to address the apprehensions of its smaller neighbours while carrying out this task. India has threats from Pakistan and from China since both these countries have animosity against India, albeit because of different reasons. Pakistan alleges that in 1971 it was partitioned because of India and that Delhi has still not accepted the creation of Pakistan. Islamabad also claims that Kashmir is an unfinished agenda of the 1947 partition and as it is a Muslim majority state, it should be merged in Pakistan. On the other hand, China considers India as its potential adversary, hence, wants to weaken it. The Chinese Intelligence agency, the Ministry of State Security (MSS), has created and continues assisting terrorist outfits in the Indian north eastern states through Myanmar. MSS also assists and instigates ISI to carry out terrorist activities in India. ISI is using diverse terrorist outfits, religious institutions, diplomatic missions, multinational organisations, unscrupulous media personnel, retired officers of Pakistan defence forces, certain political leaders and journalists with whom it has friendly relations, for assisting and in carrying out terrorist activities in India. ISI uses not only the India-Pakistan borders, but also infiltrates terrorists, weapon smuggling and fake currency through Bangladesh, Nepal, and Myanmar. Recently, there are reports that the ISI is also trying to use Sri Lanka and the Maldives for carrying out terrorist activities in southern India. Hence, India needs to secure its borders while playing an important role in the regional as well as in the international arena. The problems for Delhi are further aggravated as the country’s progress, which outstrips that of most of its neighbours, leads to the problem of mass infiltration, cross-border terrorism, left-wing radicalism, infiltration of armed terrorists, and smuggling of arms and narcotics.

The Kargil Review Committee, constituted after the 1991 Pakistan attack in the Kargil area, had expressed concern about the security and safety of land borders; the follow-up Group of Ministers (GoM) report wanted that the review should cover a wider perspective and besides land borders, the safety of coastal areas and airspace should also be galvanised as it is equally important. The problem is that maritime boundaries are also not properly defined and there are disputes at several places along both the maritime and land borders. The land borders at several places are man-made artificial borders and not based on natural features like watersheds or rives, making them easy to cross.

Because of the long land borders, several Central Police Organisations, Army and local police are responsible for safeguarding the borders at different places. As multiple agencies are involved, in case of any incident it is difficult to fix accountability. Further, different organisations have different levels of training, ethos and work cultures, report to different ministries/departments and this often results in a lack of coordination at various levels.

BORDER MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT (BMD)

Keeping in view the importance of border management, the Government of India created a Border Management Department under the Ministry of Home Affairs in January 2004. The department was constituted to handle both land and coastal borders. It looks after the policing and security of the international borders and was also responsible for the development of the infrastructure in the region. The department also constituted more than 20 Integrated check Posts (ICPs) along the borders. The approach, as employed by the government towards border management, is categorised into four essential processes.

Guarding the borders. · Regulation of the borders. · Development of border areas. · Constitution of bilateral institutional mechanisms for resolving disputes and ironing out conflicts with neighbours.

Following are the main responsibilities of the Border Management Department (BMD). · The BMD looks after the land borders, excluding the Line of Control in the J&K Sector. It also manages the coastal borders including Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The department is responsible for the fencing and fixing of floodlights on the Indo-Bangladesh, Indo-Pakistan, and Indo-Myanmar borders. The department also evaluates the requirement of electronic gadgets including laser-fitted cameras and guns, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) etc for the protection of the borders.

 The BMD issues directions for improvement in the policing, surveillance and patrolling of land and seaside frontiers. The BMD is also responsible to plan the necessity of motorable roads and improvement of communication systems along the border and in coastal areas. · The BMD analyses information received and passes actionable intelligence to the security agencies. It assists the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) in the demarcation of international borders and helps in enactment, funding, and execution of Border Area Development Programmes.

The Parliament passed the Land Ports Authority Act in 2010 to pave the way for a body that oversees Integrated Check Posts (ICP) to be built at the major entry points along the international border. All functions associated with the movement of vehicles and people like immigration, customs and security clearance will be performed by the ICPs. Thirteen ICPs have been proposed along India’s borders with Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. · Setting up of additional coastal police stations, linked to a common database to register all private vessels plying Indian waters, mandatory transponders on all vessels, identity cards for fishermen and multi-purpose identity cards for the coastal population. For carrying out its responsibilities, the Ministry of Home Affairs has two Departments, Border Management-I Division and Border Management-II Division. Essentially, the land borders (except the LOC in J&K) is managed by the Border Management-I Division, while the Border Management-II Division has four sections – Coastal Security Section; Border Areas Development Programme Section; Land Ports Authority of India Section; and Perception Management & China Studies Section.

ROLE OF INTELLIGENCE IN BORDER MANAGEMENT

The Indian borders remain volatile, and hence the importance of intelligence, both tactical and strategic, becomes very significant. Intelligence can be based on Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT), Strategic Intelligence (STRATINT), Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT), Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT), Technical Intelligence (TECHINT), Artificial Intelligence, Signal Intelligence (SIGINT), or the most important, Human Intelligence (HUMINT). The method of collection of intelligence is not that important, the basic requirement is the veracity of information collected and that it is timely and actionable. Detailed information about the rival’s location, strength, weapons, defences, logistics, reinforcement plans etc is vital for planning offensive and defensive operations. Tactical intelligence is essential for planning surgical strikes or counterinsurgency operations. A foolproof system has to be developed that after collection of information and converting it into intelligence, it is quickly passed on to the consumers so that speedy follow-up action can be taken.

The intelligence wings of Central Police Organisations (CPOs), which are mostly responsible for safeguarding the borders, are in the initial stages of development. Their officers and staff are being trained but their funding is limited and needs a review. The CPOs, as well as the local police, need to have agents at sensitive places because the ISI is constantly working to create law and order problems in the country. Besides helping terrorist outfits in J&K, it also keeps raising Khalistan and Maoist issues at every given opportunity. Even though Indian security forces have successfully curbed the Khalistan movement, but few ISI-supported Sikhs continue raising the Khalistan issue in India and abroad. There are reports that in the latest Kisan (farmers) movement, Sikh for Justice (SFJ) was involved, and that SFJ supporters carried Khalistan banners and shouted pro-Khalistan slogans during protests. There have been occasions when Khalistan supporters have also been shouting pro-Khalistan slogans in the Golden Temple and at other places. Intelligence reports mention that SFJ is financed and supported by the ISI. SFJ is a US-based pro-Khalistan outfit, and it supports the secession of Punjab and the creation of Khalistan. Gurpatwant Singh Pannun is the founder and head of SFJ and although it was banned in India in 2019, it still has supporters in the country.

There are also reports that the Chinese intelligence agency, Ministry of State Security (MSS), helps Left Wing Extremists (LWE) through Nepal and Myanmar. The MSS provides training, funds, arms and ammunition and sometimes safe shelter too. Indian intelligence agencies need to have high-level assets in these outfits. Regrettably, there is a lack of cooperation and coordination between various agencies and often actionable intelligence collected cannot be acted on due to these administrative drawbacks.

The intelligence agencies also need to gather information on infiltration, exfiltration, drug smuggling, human trafficking, arms smuggling, the inflow of fake currency etc. Several mosques and madrassas have mushroomed in Nepal near the Indo-Nepal border and some of them are likely being used by the ISI for their activities in India. Hence, unlawful activities in these religious institutions are also required to be monitored and curbed.

India should mount surveillance radars on hostile terrain along land borders, which would enhance surveillance and reconnaissance. Israeli Foliage-Penetrating Radars (FPRs) are highly effective in dense forests while laser walls are useful in the border areas where wire fencing is not feasible. Raytheon-made Boomerang Warrior-X, which weighs only 12 ounces and has a range of 900 meters, will warn soldiers about the fire location of the enemy. Security personnel should also be provided explosive detection kits and smart tracking rifles. Drones should be used for the collection of intelligence and surveillance. In the recent past, Pakistan has started using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for supplying/dropping arms and ammunition and drugs across the borders especially in Punjab.

THE PRECARIOUS INDO-PAKISTAN BORDER

The Indo-Pakistan border is 3,323 km long, which includes the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir (J&K). Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, and J&K share borders with Pakistan and the Border Security Force (BSF) guards this border, with some remote sectors and the LoC directly under the Indian Army. The Indo-Pakistan border crosses different terrains, which covers urban areas to mountains and barren deserts. Because of the hostile relations between the two countries, there are frequent border violations, firings, infiltrations; while three wars have been fought, excluding the 1999 Kargil incursion by Pakistan. The India-Pakistan border is one of the most disputed and dangerous borders in the world. In an attempt to thwart Pakistan’s constant infiltration, India has erected about 50,000 poles and 150,000 floodlights along the border. The India-Pakistan border can be divided as the Line of Control (LoC), which is the de facto boundary between J&K and Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK) after the 1948 and 1971 wars. This is 776 km long and runs along the districts of Jammu (some parts), Rajouri, Poonch, Baramula, Kupwara, Kargil and some portions of Leh.

The second is the actual ground position line (AGPL), which is 110 km long and extends from NJ 9842 to Indira Col in the North. The balance of the boundary demarcated by Sir Cyril Redcliff during partition and accepted by both the countries is known as International Boundary (IB), which runs for 2,30 8 km.

ISI has constituted a Border Action Team (BAT) which constitutes commandos of the Special Services Group (SSG) of the Pakistan Army, as well as terrorists from Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM). The BAT was created to carry out cross-border operations, threaten Indian patrol parties and dominate the Line of Control. The BAT has not only killed Indian soldiers but mutilated their bodies, which is a deplorable act for any professional army. BAT gets full support from the Pakistan security forces; they provide covering fire to BAT before they launch their border operations. 19

The Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) is constantly infiltrating terrorists into India, and hence it was decided to erect new non-cut ‘steel fence’ at sensitive infiltration-prone areas. The 60 km border near Amritsar in Punjab is one of these sectors. It is a costly project as Rs 2 crore (Rs 20 million) will be spent to cover one-kilometre fencing. Besides this, ‘laser fences’ have also been deployed. The Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS) is looking after the placement of smart fences, anti-infiltration alarms and advanced surveillance equipment. ISI is infiltrating Pakistanis, Afghans, Uzbeks and even Indians after their training as terrorists in India, hence constant surveillance and more preventive measures are required. 5

SAFEGUARDING OF INDIA BANGLADESH BORDER

The India-Bangladesh border, which is 4,096.7 km, is the longest land border that India shares with any neighbour. The border is guarded by the Border Security Force and runs along the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura, and West Bengal. Although the border was demarcated by the Radcliffe Line, it was not delineated on the ground. Hence, at several places, it divides villages, while several villages are located on the zero line. To resolve the day-to-day problems faced by the locals, Prime Minister Modi and Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina signed an agreement in June 2015 under which India got control of 510 acres of land while Bangladesh got control of 10,000 acres of land. This agreement has sorted out the problems of enclaves and overlapping on the border. There are few designated transit points but because of the porous border, people continue crossing at any point, which has created the problem of unauthorised trade and large-scale illegal migration.6 & 7

The uninterrupted migration of Bangladeshis and Rohingya Muslims through Bangladesh has changed the demography of many districts of the north-eastern states, West Bengal, and Bihar. The illegal migrants are involved in smuggling while criminal gangs and Islamic extremists use them for carrying out criminal/terrorist activities. The Government of India has adopted several measures to curb illegal migration from Bangladesh; it includes raising and deputing more BSF battalions, reducing gaps between border posts, increased border patrolling, augmenting the number of observation posts, border fencing, providing more sophisticated electronic equipment to the security agencies and constructing more roads in border areas to improve communication links. The collection of intelligence has also improved, as has the involvement of the border population and the local administration. However, these measures require to be improved and augmented constantly to match the increasing sophistication in techniques being used by the lawbreakers as large-scale immigration continues.6

A new electronic surveillance system, namely BOLD-QIT (Border Electronically Dominated Quick Response Team Interception Technique) under the CIBMS (Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System) has been installed on a 61 km stretch of the Bangladesh border, which was difficult to guard because of the Brahmaputra River and several of its waterways. More sophisticated electronic gadgets, including day and night cameras, OFC (Optical Fibre Cables), DMR (Digital Mobile Radio) communication, Microwave communication etc have also been installed, which give real-time information to the BSF control room so that immediate action can be taken. CIBMS offers an all-weather 24-hour surveillance capability even in riverine border areas. However, despite these measures, the problem of illegal migration and smuggling has not been plugged as the system cannot be used optimally because of untrained staff. 1

DEFENDING THE LINE OF CONTROL WITH CHINA

China, being an expansionist country, is illegally occupying about 38,000 sq. km of Indian territory and claims several areas including Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh. There was the Sino-Indian War in 1962, a brief border clash in 1967 and border conflicts in 1987, 2013, 2017 and multiple clashes in 2020. Hence, this border needs special attention. However, it is guarded by multiple forces including the Special Frontier Force (SFF) under the Cabinet Secretariat; IndoTibetan Border Police (ITBP), Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) and the Assam Rifles under Ministry of Home Affairs; and, the Indian army, which reports to the Defence Ministry. Deployment of multiple forces goes against the recommendations of the Border Management Task Force, which was constituted after the Kargil war, where it was mandated to have “One Border One Force” to eliminate the problems of lack of coordination and command-control issues between different organisations. This mandate has yet to be implemented despite the border continuing to remain “active”.

CONTROL OF INDO-NEPAL BORDER

The India-Nepal border, which is 1,751 km long, is an open border. It was a trouble-free border, but the ISI took advantage of this situation and started infiltrating terrorists and pumping Indian fake currency notes (IFCN) through this route. Indian and Nepali nationals do not require passports to enter each other’s country. India has established 450 Border Out Posts (BOPs) and the border is guarded by the Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB), which was previously under Cabinet Secretariat but now functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs. There is a bilateral mechanism between the two countries under which Home Secretary-level talks can be held, and in addition, there is a Joint Working Group where Joint Secretary-level talks are held periodically. Further, there are Border District Coordination Committee Meetings under which the district officials of both countries meet. In these meetings, bilateral issues including smuggling, crossborder crimes etc are discussed. 2

Pro-China and anti-India elements in Nepal allege that the open border between India and Nepal is partially responsible for the lack of development of the county and hence it should be closed. On the other hand, Pakistan is infiltrating terrorists of groups like the Lashkar-e-Toiba (L-e-T), Jaish-e-Mohammed (J-e-M), Indian Mujahideen through this border. As 98 per cent border is demarcated, hence, both countries should resolve the remaining disagreements and border encroachment disputes at the earliest. Since both countries are affected by the misuse of the open border by internal as well as external forces, they should enhance vigil on the borders. India has posted about 45,000 SSB personnel while Nepal has deputed only 4,500 security personnel at the border. Nepal should enhance the number of security personnel for making them more effective. Bilateral meetings of the officials of both the countries should be held regularly so that any differences can be sorted out amicably and promptly. 8

INDO-BHUTAN BORDER

The Indo-Bhutan border extends 699 km and passes along the Indian states of Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. India signed a treaty with Bhutan in 1949 by which it recognised Bhutan’s sovereignty, although it maintained significant influence over its foreign affairs. Thereafter, the borders were further demarcated during the 1973-1984 period through negotiations between both countries. There was a minor border dispute, which was sorted out in 2006 and a border demarcation treaty was signed. Again in 2007, a new friendship and cooperation treaty was signed between both countries. The number of border posts and security personnel deployed were enhanced after the 2017 India-China border standoff. The Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) has deployed about 12 battalions on this border. The Indo-Bhutan Group meets regularly and resolves any border management and security issues. It is a useful system as it assesses the threat perception and stops criminal groups and countries hostile to India from misusing the open borders.

INDIA-MYANMAR BORDER

The India-Myanmar border is 1,643 km long and runs from the tripoint with China in the north and with Bangladesh in the south. The tripoint with China is imprecise due to the Sino-India border dispute. Myanmar shares the border with four Indian states, viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Manipur. Myanmar and India signed a border agreement in March 1967 which demarcated their boundary in detail. India and Myanmar follow a Free Movement Regime (FMR) under which tribes living along the border are allowed to travel 16 km on either side of the border without visa constraints. There are more than 250 villages within the 10 km zone abutting the border, in which more than 300,000 people reside and they regularly cross the border through 150 border crossing points. However, India wants to increase its vigil on the border so that ISI and MSS’s assistance to terrorist and separatist groups in India can be curbed. Further, intelligence agencies of hostile countries and several criminal and anti-social groups are also actively involved in drug trafficking, smuggling of Indian Fake Currency Notes etc across the border. Hence, Indian security agencies need to keep a check on these activities. India and Myanmar also have maritime exclusive economic zones in each other’s vicinity. Landfall Island, India’s northernmost Island in the Andaman and Nicobar is just 40 km south of Coco Islands belonging to Myanmar.23

Presently, the Indian security forces have to deal with the large influx of refugees from Myanmar as a result of the Myanmar Army overthrowing the elected democratic government of the National League for Democracy (NLD) on February 1, 2021. The army is brutally suppressing the protests against the coup. According to a rough estimate, more than 500 people have been shot dead and the protests are continuing (at the time of writing). Hence, many Myanmar citizens, including police officers who refused to fire on the mobs, are trying to escape to India, as well as to Thailand, for shelter. The Myanmar authorities have requested India to return all refugees and not to give shelter to others. 18

The Indian government has to walk a tightrope diplomatically, as it would not like to annoy a friendly country, however, it is also difficult to turn away the persecuted refugees.

INDO-SRI LANKA MARITIME BOUNDARY

India and Sri Lanka are immediate neighbours and a narrow strip of water, Palk Straits, separates them. However, this strip has been the cause of security problems for both countries. In the past, Sri Lanka faced trouble because of the secessionist activities of LTTE but now India is affected as ISI is trying to use Sri Lanka for carrying out terrorist activities in the southern states of India. The maritime boundary between both the countries is divided into three parts – the Bay of Bengal in the east, Palk Straits in the Middle, and the Gulf of Mannar in the west. Different agreements between both the countries were signed in 1970, 1974 and 1976, which resolved their maritime boundary disputes. Terrorists attempt to utilise the sea for carrying out terrorist activities while criminals use it for smuggling and other criminal activities. Hence, cooperation is required between both the countries to keep such activities in check. Both India and Sri Lanka have dealt with their boundary issues amicably and the running problems continue to be resolved through diplomatic channels. 9

INDIA MALDIVES MARITIME BORDER

India and Maldives share a maritime border, and they have a close strategic, economic, and military relationship. India contributes to the maintenance of the security of the island nation. Maldives is located to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands in the Indian Ocean. India and Maldives signed a treaty in December 1976 under which both countries agreed on their maritime boundaries. The treaty specified Minicoy island to be on the Indian side of the border, although in 1982 a minor diplomatic incident occurred when the brother of the President of Maldives stated that Minicoy Island was part of Maldives; however, Maldives denied this subsequently and the matter was resolved amicably.

PROBLEMS IN BORDER MANAGEMENT

The basic problem India faces in the management of its borders is that they are not demarcated at several places with China and Pakistan, and a small part with Nepal. With Pakistan, the Indian borders are a combination of International borders and Line of Control (LOC), which means that it is not a legally recognised international boundary for both countries, but a de facto border. In reality, it is a military-controlled line, which divides Kashmir between India and Pakistan – some portion of Kashmir being illegally occupied by Pakistan. The disputed areas include Kashmir, where India had to fight three wars with Pakistan. At present, India has control of roughly a little over half of Kashmir while Pakistan is illegally occupying about 30 per cent, while China has control over 15 per cent of the area. There is also a border dispute between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch, where it opens up into the Arabian Sea between Gujarat and Sindh (Pakistan). A 96 km strip of water is disputed despite a tribunal set up after the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War giving its award in 1968 wherein Pakistan got 10 per cent of its claims. Thereafter, numerous rounds of talks between the two countries have failed to make any headway. There is also a Working Boundary between India and Pakistan. It is about 193 km long in the Sialkot sector. The boundary is not surveyed. The Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) is about 110 km long in the Siachen Glacier where troops of both India and Pakistan are deployed. The peaks in the area are above 6,000 m and temperatures drop to minus 55 Celsius. India has around 108 forward military outposts and artillery observation posts in this area. The maintenance of observation posts in such an inhospitable terrain and climate is an incredible achievement and indicates the great sacrifice and devotion of the Indian armed forces. In 1984, the Indian Army re-occupied the Siachen glacier from Pakistani forces which they were occupying illegally. About 2,600 sq. km area is presently contended by Pakistan. In 2003, a ceasefire was declared in the area, but incidents continue to take place.

With China, the Line of Actual Control (LAC) is a hypothetical demarcation between India and China. The forces of both the countries occupy the Sino-India border. The term LAC was used for the first time by Zhou Enlai in a letter written to Jawahar Lal Nehru in 1959. In 1914, an agreement was signed between Tibet, then a sovereign nation, and British India at Shimla. Since Henry McMahon was the foreign secretary and chief negotiator, hence the boundary was called as McMahon Line. India recognises it as a boundary, but the Chinese government stopped recognising the McMahon Line before the 1962 War, it also rejects the Shimla Accord. The Chinese government claims that since Tibet was not a sovereign state, it could not sign a treaty. Aksai Chin is another area that is illegally occupied by China. Beijing also claims significant areas of the state of Arunachal Pradesh. Presently, China claims about 65,000 sq. km of Indian territory.

India also has a disputed border with Nepal. Nepal claims Kalapani area which is inside India. Under the influence of the Chinese, Nepal even issued maps claiming Kalapani area as their territory in 2020. 10

The high density of population on both sides of the Indo-Pakistan border in many areas is also a major issue. At some places on the Indian side, the population density is about 700-800 persons per sq. km, while on the Pakistani side it is up to 1000 persons per sq. km. Such high density and a porous border create several law-and-order problems, including locating and arresting criminals, smugglers, and terrorists. Further, the ISI continues infiltrating terrorists across the borders into India. 2

To stop cross-border activities, India has constructed fencing on the borders to prevent infiltration of terrorists, smuggling, escape routes of criminals, and enhance security along the border areas. There were numerous hurdles initially in the construction, including difficulty in acquisition of land, opposition by the local villagers, criminals, smugglers, and ISI-supported groups also raised opposition. There were also few shortcomings in the planning and during the implementation of the border fencing work. Border fencing has been able to restrict the movement of criminals and terrorists, but it failed to stop it completely as the fencing needs round the clock vigil which is a difficult task. Further, instances of digging tunnels under the fencing for infiltration have come to light, raising alarm in security circles. The BSF deployment is also thin at several places, which results in areas that are unmonitored and are used by criminals, smugglers, and terrorists. Depending on the region, border areas are also susceptible to snowfall, waterlogging, dense vegetation etc, which is helpful for antinational elements and makes the work of security forces difficult. The latest technique used by Pakistan for supplying arms and ammunition, and drugs, has been the use of drones or UAVs. This has added a new dimension to the technology being used for transgression along the border.

As mentioned earlier, India’s coastline is not only long but it is bordering several countries, some of which are hostile to India. The coastline is I 7,516 km of which 5,422 km coastline is in the mainland and 2,094 km coastline borders around 1,382 islands. It passes through four union territories and nine states including Daman and Diu, Puducherry, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal. There are also two island groups namely Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep and Minicoy islands. The coast is very diverse as there are creeks, small islands, swamps, mudflats, backwaters, rivulets, lagoons etc. Some portions of the coastline are located in remote areas and hence they remain undefended or poorly defended and criminals and terrorists take advantage of it. The Andaman and Nicobar group comprises 572 islands, but only 36 of them are inhabited, whereas ten of the 36 islands of Lakshadweep archipelago are inhabited. These places are used for smuggling and covert docking of arms, ammunition, explosives, drugs, and infiltration of terrorists. According to a report, there are about 1,376 landing points along the coastline. 15

The 1993 serial blasts in Mumbai occurred because of inadequately guarded maritime borders which allowed RDX to be brought in by the sea route. Operation Swan was launched thereafter to rectify the deficiencies, which envisaged a three-layered security blanket. However, it could not secure the maritime borders effectively as 10 terrorists sneaked through on November 11, 2008 and killed more than 150 persons in Mumbai. The infiltrators disguised themselves as fishermen; India is the 7th largest fishing nation and approximately 4 million fishermen live near the sea coast. Besides fishing, there are industrial activities, shipbuilding, oil exploration, scientific research centres, defence installations etc located in coastal areas. Moreover, besides smuggling, the safety and security of these vital installations are also important. The disputed maritime boundaries with Pakistan and Bangladesh pose additional security challenges. 15

India has adopted a multi-tier security system for maritime security under the overall umbrella of the Navy to look after the high seas and exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The Coast Guard has jurisdiction over India’s territorial waters and its contiguous zone, and it also looks after the EEZ along with the Navy. The Coast Guard secures Indian interests through vessels and aerial surveillance, while the State Marine Police jurisdiction extends up to 12 nautical miles in shallow territorial waters. For securing the coastline, a multi-layered arrangement of sea-patrols and surveillance has been put in place. In the first layer, i.e. from the coast till 5 nautical miles, marine police patrol the sea. In the intermediate layer, i.e. between 5 nautical miles and 200 nautical miles, the coast guard is deployed. Beyond that, it is the responsibility of the Indian Navy. Apart from this, the customs department also patrols the sea 24 nautical miles offshore.

SOME REMEDIAL MEASURES TAKEN POST 26/11 ·

The Navy has been made responsible for the overall maritime security, including coastal as well as offshore security. · The Indian Coast Guard has been additionally designated as the authority responsible for coastal security in territorial waters including areas to be patrolled by Coastal Police. · The Coast Guard is to impart specialised training to police personnel deployed in coastal police stations. Two Marine Police Training Institute (MPTI), one on the East Coast and another on the West Coast would train the marine police personnel. · The National Committee on Strengthening Maritime and Coastal Security (NCSMCS), which works under the Chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary, would monitor, and assess the progress of coastal security. In addition, coastal security exercises are carried out and are followed by debriefing and sharing of lessons learnt between all the stakeholders, along with interaction with fishermen and State agencies through coastal security awareness programs. · All vessels have to be registered under the Ministry of Shipping, and biometric Identity Cards to be issued to all fishermen by the Department of Animal Husbandry. · Coast Guard to install a chain of radar sensors along the coastline. · The Navy has set up four joint operation centres at Mumbai, Visakhapatnam, Kochi, and Port Blair, with the existing Commander-in-Chiefs as the C-in-Cs Coastal Defence. · A Sagar Prahari Bal with 1000 personnel with 80 Fast Interceptor Crafts was raised to safeguard naval bases. · A Coastal Security Management System which includes surveillance, identification and command and control has also been installed. Although the government and security agencies have taken several actions, limitations in coastal security measures persist. These are listed below.

 · Progress on the part of all stakeholders in implementing various measures. · It is difficult to detect small boats which are used by terrorists and smugglers. · Physical protection of the coast is not feasible. · Identification of small boats, containers, cargo vessels and personnel is difficult because of overcrowded coastal waters and the absence of identity cards. · These vessels and personnel can be involved in the smuggling of contraband, explosives, and weapons. · Major ports are generally secured, it is the other dense/remote areas that are neglected that will most likely be exploited by terrorists/non-state actors. · Integration of all maritime stakeholders continues to remain a key concern. · The gathering of information through technical gadgets is important but it is useful only if it is converted into actionable intelligence. Hence use of modern technology along with Humint is very important. 15

STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT FOR EFFECTIVE BORDER MANAGEMENT

Numerous steps have been taken by the government to streamline border management. The Home Ministry, with the space scientists of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) are working on making satellite maps available of all sensitive areas. The Indian Army and Central Police Organisations (CPOs) have increased surveillance so that the illegal border crossings from Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan can be curbed. The Home Ministry has announced that there will be constant surveillance on sensitive border areas through satellites. The satellite imagery can also be zoomed so that the suspicious movements can be monitored. 11

The ISRO satellite will be exclusively for the Ministry of Home Affairs, and besides surveillance, it will also improve communications, navigation, and operational planning along the border areas. The Navy and Air Force already have dedicated satellites for their use. The Department of Border Management, in collaboration with State Governments, has launched the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) under which they will manage the border and will fulfil the specific needs of the people residing near the border. The infrastructure including roads etc will also be developed according to the requirements of the local population. This will help in improving the living conditions and getting better cooperation from locals.

THEATRE COMMANDS WOULD COUNTER THREATS FROM CHINA & PAKISTAN

Because of the increased threat from China and Pakistan, India needs to streamline the functioning of its defence forces, hence, it was decided that they would be reorganised into five theatre commands. It is an organisational structure devised to synergise all military resources in a theatre of war to achieve the best results. In military parlance, a joint command of Army, Navy and Air Force is called a ‘Theatre Command’. At present India has two functional joint commands, the Andaman, and Nicobar Command and the Strategic Forces Command. 12 & 13

The proposal is for the Northern Theatre Command, which will have headquarters at Lucknow, to look after the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China. It will be responsible for the areas between the Karakoram Pass in Ladakh and the last outpost Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh. The Western Theatre Command will be responsible from Indira Col on the Saltoro Ridge in the Siachen Glacier to the tip of Gujarat and its headquarters is likely to be at Jaipur. The other three commands are the Peninsular Command, Air Defence Command, and the Maritime Command. 12 & 13

The Air Defence Command will defend Indian air space by deploying fighter aircraft and anti-aircraft missiles. In addition, the Air Defence Theatre Command will augment the airstrike capability and be responsible to defend Indian airspace. The Air Force will train its fighter pilots at a single base at Gwalior and its headquarters will be at Prayagraj. It will control the existing air defence resources of all three services and will protect military assets from airborne attacks. The Commander-in-Chief of the Air Defence Theatre Command will be a three-star Indian Air Force officer. 14

MARITIME THEATRE COMMAND

At present there is excellent harmonization between the Coast Guard and Navy, however, once the Maritime Theatre Command (MTC) comes into existence the Eastern and Western Naval Commands, some elements of the Army, Air Force and Coast Guard would come under its operational control. The Director General of Coast Guard would continue reporting to the Ministry of Defence and will be responsible for recruiting and training the Coast Guard personnel. The MTC, which will be responsible for the safety and security from seaborne threats, is expected to be operational by 2022 and it will be headquartered at INS Kadamba in Karwar. The Commander-in-Chief of MTC will be a three-star officer of the Indian Navy. The existing Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC) will also come under MTC.15 & 16

The Pentagon had mentioned in a report that China is modernising its war-fighting abilities precipitously, while the Indian defence forces are lagging behind. China’s Western Theatre Command looks after the security of the complete Indo-China border, while India suffers from disjointedness as multiple forces are managing this border. Hence, the creation of unified theatre commands will help remove some of the existing anomalies in border management. 12 & 13

The Army is in favour of theatre command and considers that there will be optimal utilisation of existing resources, and further, it will avoid duplication. The Air Force is against the theatre command concept and is of the view that India does not have enough fighter planes, mid-air refuellers and Air borne Warning And Control System (AW ACS) which can be divided in to various theatre commands. The Air Force also claims that geographically India is not so big that it requires to be divided into various theatres as the assets can easily be relocated from one location to another. The Navy is also not in favour of theatre commands and claims that the present Navy headquarters are ideally located and that it performs its role proficiently. Both the Air Force and the Navy feel that they are a much smaller force in comparison to the Army, hence they may lose their autonomy and importance. 12 & 13

The Kargil Review Committee and the Shekatkar Committee both have mentioned that compartmentalised planning is not the ideal way to deal with internal or external threats, as some ‘jointness’ is necessary at the top echelons. These committees mention that disjointed and fragmented planning and execution results in a lack of synergy during war. In reality, national security has now become very complicated. Several forces, including cyber and automation, have to work along with the security forces to face the new challenges. These challenges cannot be countered through a disjointed force, it needs a strong and cohesive formation, which takes quick decisions according to emerging conditions.

REQUIREMENT OF APPROPRIATE BORDER GUIDELINES

A detailed border guideline is required to be chalked out and all border guarding forces should comply with it, both for the land and maritime borders. The guidelines should incorporate the principle of single-point control and ensure cooperation and coordination between all forces with proper exchange and utilisation of actionable intelligence. A strong vigil should be maintained of the borders through radar, satellite, and aerial imagery as this will greatly enhance the effectiveness of the security forces. The deployment of a sizable number of helicopters with the border forces would help in surveillance and would also add to the mobility and quick deployment of troops.

THE PRINCIPLE OF ‘SINGLE POINT CONTROL’ TO BE IMPLEMENTED

India’s border is diverse, and it has trouble spots at several places. Pakistan is constantly infiltrating terrorists and carrying out terrorist activities in India, while China being an expansionist country, claims several areas of India as its territory and has attacked India more than once. China also considers India as its potential adversary; hence it is trying to surround the country through its neighbours. It would be proper if the Central Police Organisations guard the demarcated borders, while unsettled and disputed borders like LoC and LAC is under the control of the defence forces. There are operations in high altitude and other difficult areas, hence the army has to be deployed in these areas. At present, besides the Assam Rifles, which is a paramilitary force officered by regular army officers, several CPOs are also deployed on the borders which may not be ideal operationally.2

The Group of Ministers in its report of 2001 had strongly recommended the principle of “one border one force” for better accountability. It had also emphasized the imperative of not deploying the border guarding forces for law-and-order duties and in counter-insurgency operations. This issue requires serious attention from the government. The maritime border management has been able to implement the principle of a single-point control, with the Indian Navy being designated as the overall responsible organisation. The establishment of four joint operations centres has further streamlined the management of the coastal borders. The Joint Operations Centres at Mumbai, Cochin, Visakhapatnam, and Port Blair play a pivotal role in synergising the coastal security efforts of over 15 central and state government agencies. The Navy has gone a step further, with their proposal to establish a multi-agency integrated body focusing exclusively on maritime intelligence and data analysis to strengthen coastal security – the National Maritime Domain Awareness Centre (NMDAC).26

To review the effectiveness of measures taken, in January 2019 the Indian Navy conducted the first-of-its-kind exercise Sea Vigil. The largescale exercise witnessed participation of more than 70 ships, 700 craft and 35 aircraft of the Indian Navy, Coast Guard, State Marine Police, Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) and other agencies across all coastal States and Union Territories. The second edition, Sea Vigil-21, was held on January 12-13, 2021. The exercise was meant to assess India’s coastal security preparedness to prevent any “attempt by antinational elements to carry out an attack on its territory or against its citizens by infiltrating through the sea route.” According to a statement released by the Ministry of Defence, “the scale and conceptual expanse of the exercise is unprecedented in terms of the geographical extent, the number of stakeholders involved, the number of units participating and in terms of the objectives to be met.”27

However, bringing land border management under a single nodal agency/ organisation has yet to be implemented and it is presently directly managed by the Home Ministry, with some sectors under the Ministry of Defence. This will never be able to match the level of coordination and efficiency which the maritime borders have achieved, and the government should look into replicating this model, with suitable modifications, for efficient management of the land borders. This is imperative because they remain “active” almost throughout the year and there is unlikely to be any let-up in the scenario in the future. Trying to manage directly from Delhi will never be an ideal solution. One of the major obstacles in implementing this model, however, will be the expected turf wars between the Ministries/agencies/organisations involved. That is another lesson to be learnt from the maritime border management model – this contentious issue has been overcome there. The effectiveness of the reorganisation of the Indian Armed Forces into Theatre Commands, especially those tasked to manage the land borders, will be greatly enhanced if all organisations deployed on the borders in peacetime are also incorporated in the command control matrix for both peace and war scenario. The present reorganisation of Theatre Commands is apparently silent regarding the other security forces deployed on the border. For example, one of the major responsibilities of the Department of Border Management Division is the development of infrastructure and roads. The Border Roads Organisation is a major organisation carrying out this task, however, it is not even in the circulation list for policies issued by the Department, nor is the Ministry of Defence or the Indian Army – both major stakeholders. This reflects the compartmentalisation in which the existing system works.28

The External Affairs Minister in his address at the Sardar Patel Memorial Lecture 2020 on October 31, 2020, highlighted that safeguarding borders is a 24×7 exercise and stressed the importance of requisite structures and systems for national security. However, he also cautioned against advocating sweeping solutions without adequate groundwork. He also highlighted that breaking silos and integrated governance, especially in national security, have been the Government’s areas of focus. The setting-up of the Department of Military Affairs (DMA) and the proposed setting-up of theatre commands are examples of this new focus. It is hoped that this focus of the government to break existing silos will result in a more efficient structure for the management of land borders. 29

ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MARITIME BORDER MANAGEMENT

The Government of India and the security agencies have taken several measures to safeguard the long marine borders of the country, but there is scope for more improvement. Firstly, more advanced technology should be used for the recognition of unknown/enemy vessels and in case required immediate apprehension or elimination. Automatic Identification System (AIS) should be fitted even in small vessels – at present AIS is fitted only in vessels of more than 300 tonnage. This is a big lacuna in the present system. Distress Alert Transmitter (DAT) should be provided to all Indian vessels so that they can send a message to the Coast Guard in case of distress, including any threat from anti-national elements. Indian fishermen should mandatorily carry their Aadhar Card or some identity document so that foreigners can be detected. The security at ports should be enhanced by fitting CCTV cameras, X-ray machines, biometrics etc. There should be more coordination among different agencies and between the security agencies of other countries so that a data bank can be created on terrorists, smugglers, and criminals. The intelligence agencies should be galvanised so that more actionable intelligence can be produced. The Joint Operation Centres and multi-agency coordination mechanism are working presently and should strive for further efficiency in their functioning. The setting up of the NMDAC will provide a big boost in maritime border management.

End Notes

1.    RSTV In Depth: Border Surveillance Dated 7 March 2019 by Insights IAS

https://www.insightsonindia.com/2019/03/07/rstv-in-depth-bordersurveillance/#:~:text=A%20new%20electronic%20surveillance%20

2.    Security Challenges and their management in border areas Civil Services India IAS Guide

https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/ General-Studies/notes/security-challenges.html

3.    Information on Department of Border Management https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/General-Studies/notes/ security-challenges.html

4.     Jai Kumar Verma; Will LOC & LAC Become Easier To Manage If Our Intelligence Becomes State-Of-The-Art? Dated 11 June 2017; Aviation and Defence Universe

https://www.aviation-defence-universe.com/will-loc-lac-become-easiermanage-intelligence-becomes-state-art/

5. India building new ‘steel fence’ along Pakistan, Bangla borders: officials; Economic Times E Paper dated 10 January 2020. P.T.I https:/ /economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/india-erecting-new-steelfenc e- along- pakistan - bangla-borders - officials /arti c les h o w / 73191397.cms?from=mdr

 6. Kanchan Lakshman & Sanjay K Jha; India-Bangladesh: Restoring Sovereignty on Neglected Bordershttps://www.satp.org/satporgtp/ publication/faultlines/volume14/article7.htm

7. Anchal Vohra; India settles border dispute with Bangladesh as Narendra Modi signs Land Boundary Agreement with Sheikh Hasina Dated June 6th, 2015 News 18 https://www.news18.com/news/india/prime-minister-narendra-modisigns-land-boundary-agreement-with-bangladesh-pm-sheikh-hasina1002466.html

8. Hans Raj Singh asked: What are the major problems on the Indo-Nepal border and how they can be resolved? https://idsa.in/askanexpert/majorproblemsontheIndo-Nepalborder

9. Sanath de Silva; Sharing Maritime Boundary with India: Sri Lankan Experience h t t p s : / / w w w . g o o g l e . c o m / search?q=India%E2%80%93Sri+Lanka+maritime+ boundary+troubles&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN833IN833&oq=India% E2%80%93Sri+Lanka+maritime+boundary+troubles&aqs=ch rome..69i57j33i160.5396j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

10. The Disputed Territories of India; dated 14 September 2020 Seterra Blog https://online.seterra.com/en/p/india-border-disputesJ.K. Verma 104 Vol. XXIV, No. I

11. Shaswati Das; Home ministry, ISRO team up to boost internal security surveillance system Dated 31 Jan 2020, MINT https://www.livemint.com/news/india/home-ministry-isro-team-up-toboost-internal-security-surveillance-system-11580409247559.html

12. Krishna Mohan Mishra and Subhangi Kumari Sing; India to get 5 military theatre commands by 2022 to counter threats from China, Pakistan; Zee News dated 27 October 2020 https://zeenews.india.com/india/india-to-get-5-military-theatrecommands-by-20 22-to-cou nter-threats-from-c hina-paki stan2320423.html

13. Theatre Command in India; Drishti Internal Security; dated 04 May 2019 Prev https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/ theatre-command-in-india

14. Rahul Singh; India-China border row: Air forces hold formation in Ladakh; Hindustan Times Dated 31.03.2021 https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/indiachina-border-rowair-forces-hold-formation-in-ladakh-101617138487983.html FROM

15. Pradeep V Kamat; India’s Coastal Security: Perspectives, Challenges and Prospects; Forum for Integrated National Security. Journal (FINS) dated 27 June 2019, https://finsindia.org/journal/indias-coastal-security-perspectiveschallenges-and-prospects/

16. Snehesh Alex Philip; Maritime Theatre Command could bring Coast Guard ships under its control; The Print Dated 27 November 2020 https://theprint.in/defence/maritime-theatre-command-could-bringcoast-guard-ships-under-its-control/553228/

17. Exclusive economic zone of India: Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia h t t p s : / / e n . w i k i p e d i a . o r g / w i k i / Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India#:~:text=India%20has%20the% 2018th%2Dlargest,Bengal%20and%20the%20Andaman%20Sea. 18. Manipur: India state reverses order turning away Myanmar refugees; BBC Dated on or about 1 April 2021 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-56573888

19. Sidharth Shekhar; BAT squad: All you need to know about Pakistan’s notorious Border Action Team; TIMESNOWNEWS.COM; dated August 04, 2019SECURITY CHALLENGES AND MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S INTERNATIONAL BORDERS Vol. XXIV, No. I 105 https://www.timesnownews.com/international/article/bat-squad-allyou-need-to-know-about-pakistan-s-notorious-border-action-team/ 463435

20. Department of Border Management OM dated March 10, 2021, h t t p s : / / w w w . m h a . g o v . i n / s i t e s / d e f a u l t / f i l e s / BMdiv_I_Annexure_I_12032021.pdf

21. Department of Border Management: Responsibilities http:// www.allgov.com/india/departments/ministry-of-home-affairs/ department-of-border-management?agencyid=7565#

22. Department of Border Management Division-II https:// www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/BM_II_Mandate_18062019.pdf

23. India–Myanmar border https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India– Myanmar_border#:~:text=India%20and%20Myanmar%20have%20maritime%20e xclusive%20economic%20zones,nmi%29%20south%20of %20Coco%20Islands%20belonging%20to%20Myanmar

24. India’s Border Management https://r.search.yahoo.com/ _ylt=Awr9Duovtn1gBrUAqD9XNyoA;_ylu = Y 2 9 s b w N n c T E E c G 9 z A z E E d n R p Z A M E c 2 V j A 3 N y / R V = 2 / RE=1618880175/RO=10/RU=https%3a%2f%2fidsa .in%2fsites%2fdefault%2ffiles%2fbook_IndiasBorderManagement.pdf/ RK=2/RS=2Tsv0xG.fAhQHOJPRrfDxWHMLdc

25. Smart Border Management: An Indian Perspective https:// www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/publications/2016/smart-border-managementan-indian-perspective.pdf

26. 12 years of 26/11: Multi-agency hub for coastal security in India soonhttps://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/12-years-of-26-11-multiagency-hub-for-coastal-security-in-india-soon-1744445-2020-11-26

27. Sea Vigil: India’s Coastal Security Exercisehttps:// thediplomat.com/2021/01/sea-vigil-indias-coastal-security-exercise/

28. New Guidelines of Border Area Development Programme (BADP), 2020 — regarding, Department of Border Management, Ministry of Home Affairs OM No. 12/63/2014-BADP(Pt.-1) dated March 11, 2020, h t t p s : / / w w w . m h a . g o v . i n / s i t e s / d e f a u l t / f i l e s / GuidelinesofBADP_17032020.PDFJ.K. Verma 106 Vol. XXIV, No. I

29. Coastal Security in India: Twelve Years After ‘26/11’, National Maritime Foundation https://maritimeindia.org/coastal-security-inindia-twelve-years-after-26-11/ ...................................................................................................................................... ABOUT THE AUTHOR J. K. Verma is a former Director in the Cabinet Secretariat. He is a Pakistan watcher and has written extensively on the nefarious designs of the ISI, smuggling of fake Indian currency notes, etc. He is also writing on other SAARC countries. He has written articles on Islamic terrorism and left-wing extremism. He is a strategic analyst and delivers lectures at training academies of paramilitary and intelligence organisations.